WORK AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN PRE-INDUSTRIAL TUSCANY.
Until about the middle of the last century, our territory had only marginally been touched by industrialisation. This, which still only a few days ago appeared to be a disadvantage, has today revealed itself as being an inestimable value since the beauty of the landscape apart from being a good thing in itself has caused a notable development of tourism in the area.
This landscape, however, is not simply natural, but has been formed, thanks to the often backbreaking work of the peasants who have modified it over the years. We are dealing with a fortunate case in which the intervention of man has improved the aspect of the territory instead of worsening it, as usually happens.
To understand how this happened it is necessary to go back to more than two centuries ago, to the times of the reforms of Grand Duke Peter Leopold, the enlightened ruler whose incentive was essential to the environmental development of Tuscany and the Val di Chiana in particular.
LEOPOLD II AND HIS ECONOMIC POLICY IN TUSCANY
In the 1700s Tuscany, like nearly all of Italy, was under the domination of Austria. In particular, from 1765 to 1790, an enlightened ruler reigned over Tuscany: this was Peter Leopold of the house of Habsburg Lorraine and future emperor of Austria.
The charismatic ruler was responsible for innovative reforms inspired above all, in the economic field, by the physiocratic criteria of the 1700.began with a vast project: an agrarian reform. At first he took steps to ensure provisions for the starving population, charging one of his officials to distribute surplus grain to the poorest people.
Then he arranged to provide the people with meat. This help mitigated the most pressing needs but it did not resolve the problem. So he started a programme of agricultural work to improve the miserable farming conditions and the welfare of the lower classes.
Then Leopold issued a decree which ordered a statistical survey of the economic situation of the country. Furthermore he set up a commission giving it the task of gathering precise data on the volume of commerce. A great deal of data were gathered and the whole material was of enormous importance as it also served Leopold in the restructuring of agriculture.
The trading of grain, subjected to strict state control with consistent rises in prices, was progressively decontrolled:
-Autumn 1766: decontrol of the bread trade resulting in a drop in the price of wheat;
-Summer 1767: the end of importation tax on grain;
-18th September 1767: a grain law which put an end to the privileges of Florence as a city. As Tuscany was an agrarian state, the law granted a privileged position to agriculture;
-1769: amortisation laws, institutions of funds for rural economic development;
-April 1771: the end of all customs duties on the importation of grain and livestock.
Leopold's reform action was then concerned directly with the agricultural sector. Of fundamental importance were:
-The draining of the Maremma and the Valdichiana which, apart from improving the economy of all the towns present in the latter, also benefited nearby towns between Valdichiana and Val d'Orcia, such as Montepulciano, Sarteano, Chianciano, etc.
-The institution of the Accademia dei Georgofili, a kind of forum for the development of agriculture.
Among other reforms worth noting are the following:-Customs unification;
-Abolition of trade association;
-Establishment of a state taxation system;
- Establishment of production bonuses.
In all Leopold managed to break the resistance of the privileged classes, to reorganize the country's finances and to cancel two thirds of the public debt.
In a Tuscany so reformed, there was a remarkable development in agriculture during the following century and a half.
However, in a precapitalistic context, this development was possible above all thanks to the mezzadria(sharecropping), a pattern of contract for which Tuscan agriculture is justly famous.
MEZZADRIA
(Sharecropping)
Among the most diffuse contracts in the Tuscan countryside in the past two centuries, that of the Mezzadria was the most important, especially regarding central Italy. The Mezzadria has affected the agricultural economy since 1700. It was often put to the test by the sudden variations in market demands, but was always able to adapt to various economic situations.
At the end of the 1700s, the figure of the Mezzadro (Sharecropper) was close to that of the proletarian, while the owner of capital and land grew rich, favoured by a more modern institutional situation and meeting the new economical needs.
In fact, the spreadof free ownership, favoured by free marketing, fosterd, in its turn, a thriving land market. Later on, with the increase in value of the land, the owner bound the autonomy of the sharecropper.
He, together with his family, was not only assiduously controlled by the landowner, or his intermediaries, but was also liable to lose his job.
PROBLEMS OF THE MEZZADRIA
Between the 1700s and 1800s, due to numerous wars following one after the other which removed many farmhands from the scene, progress and the maintenance of former productive levels diminished.
Nevertheless, after the draining of land and therefore an increase in cultivable land, there was a notable drop in prices and in the value of Property.
The agricultural economy was therefore in crisis and evidence of which was the fact that both landowners and tenants were compelled to ask for loans in the rationalisation of land with vineyards and olive groves.
In this period, from the point of view of importance, there was a prevailing free trade policy; infact free trade gave the sharecroppers the possibility to buy cereals at a low price, thus reducing the farm debit.
AGRARIAN CAPITALISM
The landowners of this period tried to make investments in other sectors apart from agriculture, even if it needs to say that the traditional land investments kept their prestige. In fact, until the 1940s the agricultural sector remained the most profitable, since Tuscany still was not completely developed industrially.
Between 1800 and 1900 there were some significant changes. Above all, in the increase of wine production, which had been hampered by infestation which made it necessary for capital outlay in the replanting of vineyards with improvements in wine-making equipment.
Not only is there evidence of sharecropping contracts found in the areas of Chianti and Pisan Maremma, and numerous documents about phases in wine processing and modern wine cellars, but also a notable increase in the Tuscan exportation abroad of bottled wine.
Also in the making of olive oil it is possible to see the same tendency in technological improvements. In fact, oil mills and cellars were built with the installation of more machinery. Also the use of chemical fertilisers were progressively widespread. Indirectly, the increase in production of chemical fertilisers can be seen as an indicator in the more rational cultivation in farming.
There is, also, evidence of a more rational system of rotation- for example, maize would be planted next to sugar beet and tobacco - the use of which proved environmentally favourable for the farm.
Undoubtedly these improvements affected, above all, farming estates - better organised and with an effective technical management - even if they were not very widespread.
The peasant's work was controlled with precise direction in the types and methods of cultivation and times of harvest. However, if this greater activity in farming helped to improve the production of wine and oil, the broadening of the market also favoured the independent producers.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES THE MEZZADRIA
In 1871/1872 the Accademia dei Georgofili discussed the economic and social usefulness of the Mezzadria contract. Its economic functionality, its adaptability to the diverse conditions of cultivation and its reaction capacity on the market were analysed. Also the possibility to modify the economic scope in connection with the diverse land conditions and changed conditions in cultivation were pointed out.
During the discussions the usefulness of the Mezzadria was affirmed while, at the same time, the practical and social usefulness of the general spread of such a type of contract was denied.
In the debate, the positions defined were diverse and contrasting; generally three accusations of the Mezzadria were made:
-Being insufficiently remunerated to capital investments.
-Creating, in part for this reason, in part for others, an obstacle in agricultural progress.
-Offering insufficient remuneration to the sharecropper.
The supporters of the second accusation were very favourable to direct accounts conditions or the leasing out of peasants. Instead, others, like the great landowner Gucciardini, refused to recognise the minimum validity in the charges. According to them the Tuscan countryside was rich in capital, not needing continual investments.
However, agricultural progress would not be hindered; neither by the landowner who made profit from it, nor by the sharecropper, who would have accepted, with good results, the recent technical innovations introduced in Tuscan agriculture and, therefore, would have to stay under the technical control of the landowner.
In spite of the various criticism made of the Mezzadria there lacked a clear commitment to overcome it, also because the rigidity of the agrarian structure in Tuscany did not permit an easy and radical change.
The Mezzadria estate followed the fate of every aged structure; a great economic expediency exploited it rather than replace it.
In fact, two functional elements were still found - the first operating in a short period, the second in a longer incidence. In the short period, the Mezzadria exercised positive functions such as safeguarding capital investments and cheap manpower.
The long period lightened market difficulties through the absorption of products difficult to sell by the sharecroppers. The Mezzadria lasted a long period, thanks to the flexibility of a contract that could conciliate the absentee landlord with the capitalist entrepreneur.
THE MEZZADRIA AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS
Many times it has been stated that the Mezzadria delayed and hindered progress from a technical point of view. But this was only partly true, that is concerning the Tuscan sharecropper in the direction of the farm.
Actually many innovations could not have been carried out without the participation of the peasant. Much more determinant in the slow progress was the disinterest and poor preparation of the landowner and the managers.
THE MEZZADRIA FAMILY
In 1841, the Grand Duke organised a census of the whole population of Tuscany. The outcome of this survey showed the family as a group of people living together. The organisation was very accurate. Due to this census it was possible to trace a general picture of the Tuscan population and, also, to have a more detailed picture of the family and workers.
In a typical community, the majority of the population was dedicated to agriculture; sharecroppers, farmhands, small landowners and market gardeners. The rest were involved in commerce, industry, the military and the church.
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According to what emerged from the census, the Mezzadria family had to be formed in a way as to supply an adequate workforce, and had to face the period of major work along with those of quiet. Every member of the family has his role to perform in the family economy.
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The main strength of the Mezzadria family was in the fact that they preferred to use manpower instead of machinery, in that way nobody would be without work.
Generally, the role of the head of the family, called capoccia (overseer), went to the oldest man, or to the eldest son if the father was infirm.
The women had the position of housewife, even if they, occasionally, participated in farmwork. The female workforce was used only in the case in which the income was insufficient.
A family could be large as it consisted of a couple with many children, or of more couples related to each other. The "Mezzadria" families were generally made up of young married couples living with their parents and brothers and sisters. To not upset the stability of The farm, sharecroppers stayedlong time together with their parents and family.
Instead, wagearning farmhands had a small family nucleus separated from their origins.
The "Mezzadria" families were united; all the men of working age dedicated themselves to the farm. Among the land-owning farmers, however, many people changed jobs thus causing a crisis for small properties.
Finally, it may be noted that, although the Mezzadria in Tuscany was the preferred form of management as it guaranteed a secure income for the landlord, the families of farmhands were superior to sharecroppers.
The main strength of the Mezzadria family was in the fact that they preferred to use manpower instead of machinery, in that way nobody would be without work.
Generally, the role of the head of the family, called capoccia (overseer), went to the oldest man, or to the eldest son if the father was infirm.
The women had the position of housewife, even if they, occasionally, participated in farmwork. The female workforce was used only in the case in which the income was insufficient.
A family could be large as it consisted of a couple with many children, or of more couples related to each other. The "Mezzadria" families were generally made up of young married couples living with their parents and brothers and sisters. To not upset the stability of The farm, sharecroppers stayedlong time together with their parents and family.
Instead, wagearning farmhands had a small family nucleus separated from their origins.
The "Mezzadria" families were united; all the men of working age dedicated themselves to the farm. Among the land-owning farmers, however, many people changed jobs thus causing a crisis for small properties.
Finally, it may be noted that, although the Mezzadria in Tuscany was the preferred form of management as it guaranteed a secure income for the landlord, the families of farmhands were superior to sharecroppers.
THE WORK OF PEASANT-FARMERS
An analyse of what was it like in our countryside cannot be limited to judicial and social reports. At least some mention of work in the fields is called for. Taking into account the vastness of the subject, we have taken into consideration two exemplary activities.
The first, threshing the grain, is essential in every rural community.
The second, winegrowing, is very important for the agricultural identity of Tuscany.
In both cases we have underlined the material aspects of the work that were characteristic of this area.
TREBBIATURA (thrashing)
The "trebbiatura" is an agricultural technic which consists of beating sheaves of wheat to separate the grain from the ears, and can be done by hand, with a stick or with a correggiato (flail). In threshing by hand the sheaves are beaten against any wall or wooden surface. After, they are threshed again to gather a greater quantity o grains.
As to threshing with a stick, the stick used can vary in type and have a length ranging from 50 cm to 5 m. The sheaves are placed in the farmyard, where they are to be threshed, and are beaten on the ground by means of these sticks.
Also the correggiato can be of various types. Usually it consists of handle, on top of which is a fastening linking the shorter stick of the two, which is free to swing.
L'AIA (The Farmyard)
The farmyard can be situated either under cover or in the open. Regarding Tuscan farms, the farmyard utilised the space in front of the house and was bounded by haystack.
The ground of the open farmyard had to be smooth and firm so that the threshed wheat was not lost. Then the land was ploughed, watered and subsequently the wheat was sown.
THE PRODUCTION OF WINE
Work of the winegrower:
One of the jobs of the winegrower is the pruning of the vines which, by tradition, is carried out in March though it can also last the whole winter.
To prune the vines you need the tradition curved knife (roncolo or ronchetto) or sickle (roncola or pennato).
In the spring, the winegrower is also occupied with the hoeing. In fact, the soil around the vines must be turned and loosened with a hoe or spade. May he starts to spray the vines with a copper sulphate solution ("dare il ramato") using a special pump.
In Tuscany, this work is repeated every 14 days from May to August. In alternation the grapes are also sprayed more times with sulphur ("dare lo zolfo").
THE "VENDEMMIA" AND THE TRANSPORT OF GRAPES
The "vendemmia" (grape harvest) grape harvest usually starts at the end of September and lasts, approximately, the whole of October. The grapes to be harvested are cut with the traditional roncolo and are not difficult to reach. During the harvest, every person keeps a small container by his side, into which he puts the cut grapes. This container can also be used to transport the grapes to the wine-pressing vat.
Containers for picking and transporting the grapes. The containers most used in Tuscany are:
- basket with round, oval or more seldom rectangular handles, made of interlaced whole or split twigs, cane or straw.
- "Corbello": cylindrical basket made of wide, interlaced strips of wood, with a sturdy edge at its rather large opening and a height of about 50-70 cm. It is carried by the men on their backs to transport the grapes to the tubs on the cart.
- Bigoncia or bigone: high oval tub, holding about 15 litres, without handles. Used to transport the grapes from the vineyard to the house.
- "Tinello di raccolta": nearly always placed on the cart. Can contain one or more hectolitres and is used only to transport the grapes. It is often identical to the tino di pigiatura (wine-pressing tub).
- "vasca di pigiatura": this wine-pressing vat was placed on the cart as it was also used to transport the grapes.
The pressing of the grapes.
At first the picked grapes were pressed in a suitable container ("pigiare l'uva, ammostare").
-"Pigiatura coi piedi": most frequenty used method for pressing the grapes was with the bare feet; generally by a man with his trousers rolled up. Some winegrowers do not want to even wash their feet first as they are afraid the wine could become diluted. Others consider the washing is absolutely necessary.
-"Ammostatura con l'ammostatoio di legno": grapes, before being put into the vats, are crushed in the vineyard (in the tubs which are carried on the men's backs) with a wooden rammer or crusher ("ammostino, pigio, pigiatoio, pestone, pestatoio, mazzo, mazzanghero, maglio") which widens at one end like a club, or with a forket stick.
First, the rammer was used in thetransport tub, then, during the fermentation in the vat, the grapes are pressed by feet once or twice a day.
Container for wine-pressing.
"Bigoncia" carried on the back: the grapes, generally immediately after the picking, are crushed in this type of tub with the rammer.
-"Tino di pigiatura" round vat of staves, the ore of which can be extended to the base to form the feet. Usually is narrows towards the top and can be of various sizes.vat of this type is found in the cellar or vat-room, next to the fermentation vats which can be even larger and reach the height of a men.
It is used, above all, after the preliminary pressing in the bigoncia.
-Barrel: instead of a vat, the grapes can be pressed in a barrel, open at the top and standing in a vertical position.
-"Pestatoio": The pressing by feet is carried out in a special wooden box placed on top of the vat, wooden or stone vats or a barrel.
If in the pre-industrial period, the production technics regarding peasant-farmers did not undergo prominent changes, a different debate was made concerning the allocation of land.
This took into account the social, demographic, economic and political changes which, in consequence, imposed a modification of agricultural production.
A picture of the change in Tuscan agriculture from the time of the house of Habsburg-Lorraine and that of the fascists, is deducible in comparison with the first and land register in Tuscany, initiated by Leopold II but not completed until '800, and that of 1929.
Tuscan Agriculture between 1800 and 1900.
Examining the data obtained in analysing the two Land Registers, two important elements are evident and must be underlined: the first of the least importance they undertook was mechanical cultivation and specialized arboreal cultivation (olive groves and vineyards) in the 1930s.
The other element of major importance is the remarkable increase (about 50%) of sowable land, due mainly to the increase in arboreal planting rather than unusable land, this caused damage to the agrarian land surface, in fact about 70% of pasture wooded areas were stable.
This process can be defined as tillage rather than deforestation, in that, in Tuscany it happened that cultivated land took priority over trees.
We can mention the significant process in the cultivation of new land, which, however, was carried out at a different pace and extent depending on the area. On one hand, it had the aim of extending the margins of arable land which was partly arboreal.
What remained was the basic prospect of dividing out the whole data of 1929 show the result reached by this process, but also the remarkable backwardness of Tuscan agriculture.
Therefore, a process of intensification and diffusion of the classic method of cultivation was in Tuscany, which was linked to the "Mezzadria" production, and became more widespread.
This process must not be judged in terms of quantity, but also of quality in the sense that, in Tuscany, the process of adjustment and the increase in productivity can be verified.
The sources can offer some general indication on annual cultivation and unitary production:
- The first important reference is the already mentioned lack of development in mechanical cultivation: in effect it did not exceed more than 2.5% decline of the workforce.
- Another element was the decline of cereal cultivation. There was a slight drop in wheat production which continued and covered about 35% of cultivated land, while another important change was the decline in lesser cereals to the advantage of fodder cultivation.
- In the areas where the "mezzadria" model of agriculture was still not utilized (Grossetano, Maremma Volterrana and the southern-central province of Siena) in spite of indication of an increase of tillage and wood cultivation, the annual fallow land show only a slight increase in production over the past hundred years.
The introduction of fodder cultivation, together with minor technical innovations was, probably, the cause of the increase in productivity during this hundred years in Tuscany.
In a monography of 1939, doubts were put forward about the technical and productive development in Tuscany.
The cause was put down to the modest yield of food-stuffs and the insufficient spread of fodder cultivation, which could not make up for the imbalance between mixed farming and the maximum exploration of cereals on one hand, and the breeding of livestock on the other.
In conclusion, in Tuscany, an important move to cultivate new land and to get some activation in cultivation was prevalent along tradition lines, clearly defined on the mixed "mezzadria" type of agriculture.
Let's move our attention to Tuscany in general. Here are the geological and environmental pictures of this area, which also illustrate the sienese agricultural condition in the 1800s.
THE SIENA PROVINCE
With the exception of Sarteano, Cetona and alta Val di Chiana, the present provinces formed, between 1700 and 1800, the "Compartimento Senese". The territory is predominantly hilly with Mount Amiata being the highest point at 1738 m.
Its composition is volcanic, with trachyte rock that lies on a clay and calcareous foundation, the geological composition of the province is varied: from the travertine of Colle Val d'Elsa and Monteriggioni, to the clay of Val d'Orcia, the green hills of the Chianti and to the clay and sand soil of Val di Chiana.
The population was not large, only 28 inhabitants per square kilometre and everywhere the small farms were widespread, even if it was sowable land exclusively, with only 3.6% of plantation in whole area.
This territory consists of Monteroni, Murlo, Buonconvento, Montalcino, Rapolano, Asciano, S. Giovanni d'Asso and Trequanda. The area is the largest amongst the subdivisions of Siena's agricultural regions. But, due to the clay soil, trees and woods can hardly survive.
However, cereals, vines and olive trees thrive in this soil, in fact, one of the most famous wines, "Brunello", is produced at Montalcino even if it is less productive compared to "Chianti". Also, due to the favourable conditions the olive tree is found every where.
This region consists of five communities: Sinalunga, Torrita, Montepulciano, Chianciano and Chiusi. The plain had a good supply of water. Due to its physical and chemical features it is one of the most fertile areas in Tuscany and, at the time, already had a profitable agriculture.
The more fertile hill soil was intensely cultivate with cereals, legumes, flax and hemp combined with olives and wines.
The areas with the highest demographic concentration were the large grand-ducal farming estates on the already drained plain of Montepulciano and Bettolle, while the least populated areas were the yet to be drained surroundings of Chianciano and Chiusi.
The prevailing activities of the region were agricultural and the transformation of the produce obtained. Silkworm breeding, sericulture and bee-keeping were practised in the areas of Sinalunga, Torrita and Montepulciano.
This agrarian region consist of San Quirico d'Orcia, Pienza, Radicofani, Sarteano, Cetona and San Casciano dei Bagni. The hilly terrain is principally of clay and this, along with the scarce rainfall in summer, did not permit profitable sowable land.
Mixed farming with vines and olives was diffuse on the hills of Cetona, in the countryside around small towns (were there was a higher concentration of people), and small holdings. Agriculture and stock raising were the main activities: the first was very poor, the latter providing substancial revenues due to the breeding of sheep and pigs.
Apart from the hill of alta Val d'Elsa, Chianti and Senese, the rest of the Compartimento Senese had an infertile terrain due to little soil-depth and the presence of clay deposits.
This, however, did not impede the cultivation of vineyards and olives. Practically the only activity was that of the transformation of produce such as wine and olive oil.
The region had little demographic density due to the lack of sowable land, of other alimentary resources and extra-agricultural activity.
Mentioned before is the draining of Val di Chiana, one of the major important public works in the history of Tuscany. To finish, here is a brief account of it.
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